Minotaur

The following is a definition submitted to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, which is a great free resources for students of any age.

 

In Greek mythology, the Minotaur was a monster with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. The Minotaur was the offspring of the Cretan Queen Pasiphae and a majestic bull. Due to the Minotaur's monstrous form, King Minos ordered the craftsman, Daedalus, and his son, Icarus, to build a huge maze known as the Labyrinth to house the beast. The Minotaur remained in the Labyrinth receiving annual offerings of youths and maidens to eat. He was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus.

The word Minotaur is a compound word consisting of the ancient Greek name "Μίνως" or "Minos" and the noun "ταύρος" or "bull." Thus, the word Minotaur comes to mean "bull of Minos." While, the Minotaur's birth name, Asterion, in ancient Greek "ἀστέριον" means "starry one" which suggests an association with the bull constellation: Taurus.

Minos & The Bull From the Sea

Minos was one of the three sons from the union of Europa and Zeus; when Zeus was in the form of a bull. Europa's husband was the King of Crete, Asterion, who looked over the boys as if his own. When Aseterion died, it was unclear which of the three sons should ascend to power. The three sons were Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus; these three men who after they died were made judges in the Underworld. It was their task to judge the dead in order to assign where their placement was in the Underworld based upon the merits of their life. But it was Minos, whose name in Cretan actually means king, who was fated to be king of Crete. But, Minos' ascension to power was a difficult journey; he competed for the kingship of Crete with his brothers. Minos, however, had one advantage that his brothers did not. He claimed that he had the support and authority from the gods to rule, and he boasted that he could prove it by praying for whatever he wanted and the gods would make it so. Thus, one day while sacrificing to Poseidon, he prayed that a bull would appear from the depths of the sea. Minos vowed to heaven that he would sacrifice the bull to Poseidon once it appeared. Poseidon, then, produced a magnificent bull from the sea; thus, Minos' claim for power was validated. For no one dared to defy the favor of the gods, let alone the mighty Poseidon who ruled over all seas. As a result of winning the throne, Minos banished his brothers from Crete and never to return again.

However, King Minos did not fulfill his vow; he kept the majestic animal for himself and sacrificed a different bull to the god. Angered by King Minos' disrespect, Poseidon plotted to punish him for his arrogance and hubris. In accordance to some versions of the myth, it is Poseidon who punishes Minos by instilling a passion within the king's wife, Pasiphae, for the bull that came from the sea. However, according to the Roman author Hyginus, it is Venus (Aphrodite) who curses Pasiphae, because the Queen had not shown proper piety to the goddess in some time. The goddess punished her by sending a salacious passion for the majestic bull from the sea. Another version of this version retells how Poseidon angered by Minos went to Aphrodite for her help in the matter and cursed Pasiphae as a favor to Poseidon.

Pasiphae & the Birth of the Minotaur

 Queen Pasiphae, plagued by her divinely inflicted desires, sought the help of Daedalus and Icarus. For Pasiphae, Daedalus constructed a wooden cow coated with a real cow hide and placed it upon wheels. Daedalus, then, put Queen Pasiphae inside the structure and wheeled her into the meadow that her beloved bull grazed in. It was there that she met and laid with the bull, since the bull thought the wooden cow was real.

It is from this union that the Minotaur was born. The queen named the beast Asterion (after King  Minos' stepfather), which the Cretan people knew to be the Minotaur's true name. Upon seeing the infant, King Minos discovered his wife's bestial affair. As punishment, Minos enslaved Daedalus and Icarus for their parts in the affair, but he left Pasiphae untouched. Pasiphae cared for Asterion and was able to nourish Asterion while he was a bull calf. However, as he grew he became ferocious and monstrous and she was unable to feed or care for him. Asterion was unable to find a suitable source of food, since he was neither man nor beast, and so he started to eat people. In order to hide his wife's disgraceful affair and at the advisement of the Oracle, King Minos commanded Daedalus and Icarus to build a grand Labyrinth to house his wife's son: Asterion or Mintauros.

Death of Androgeos & Athen's Tribute

 While the construction of the Labyrinth was underway, King Minos discovered that his only human son, Androgeos, with Pasiphae had been killed. Some sources say that he was killed by the Athenians out of jealousy for his skill in the Panathenic Games. A different version of the myth claims that the King of Athens, Aegeus, was angered by Androgeos' victories, and sent him to slay the unconquerable Marathonian Bull. In turn, he was killed by the bull and indirectly by the actions of the Athenians. Regardless of how, Androgeos was killed and King Minos blamed the Athenians for the death of his only human son and for the destruction of his family line. He sailed against the Athenians and harassed them until they agreed to pay the price for his son's death. King Minos demanded that Athens pay a tribute to Crete of seven maidens and seven youths every nine years. (There is some contradiction in the sources about how often these tribute were made from every nine years to once a year.)These tributes would then be placed in the Labyrinth for the Minotaur to devour. In various sources, the tributes or sacrificial victims were chosen by lot of only the most beautiful men and virginal girls. The Athenians consulted the Oracle of Delphi who instructed the city of Athens to give Minos whatever he demanded. However, according to Catullus, the murder of Androgeos sparked a cruel plague on Athens. It is only when King Aegeus learned that by sending tributes to Crete and obeying Minos' demand that Athens would be saved; he agreed. Reluctantly, the Athenians submitted to Minos' terms and King Minos returned to Crete.

The Death of the Minotaur

 

Theseus, son of King Aegeus, was said to have volunteered for the third tribute of youths. He boasted to his father and to all of Athens that he would slay the Minotaur. He promised that on the journey home he would raise his white sails if he was victorious or have the crew fly black sails if he failed and were killed. Upon reaching Crete, the daughters of King Minos: Ariadne and Phaedra fell deeply in love with him. Unable to cope with Theseus being eaten by her half-brother the Minotaur, Ariadne went to Daedalus for help. She begged the craftsman to tell her how one could escape from his Labyrinth. Once he had told her, she raced to tell and help Theseus before he entered the Labyrinth. Following Daedalus' instructions, she handed Theseus a ball of string to help him find his way out of the Labyrinth. Upon entering the Labyrinth, Theseus tied one end of the string to the door and continued into the maze. He found the Minotaur in the furthest corner of the Labyrinth and killed him with the jabs of his fist (or in other accounts, he sneaks in the sword of Aegeus and slays the Minotaur with it). Unlike the Labyrinth's previous victims, Theseus is able to find his way out, because of Ariadne's gift. Theseus simply follows the thread  back through the maze to find his way to the doors. He finds and leads the other Athenians out of the maze and quickly sails off to Athens with Ariadne and Phaedra.

The Journey Home

 On the journey home, Theseus abandons Ariadne on the island of Naxos and continues to sail to Athens with his intended wife, Phaedra. On Naxos, Ariadne reflects on her actions and naivety of assisting with her brother's murder (the Minotaur) for Theseus, who she thought would marry her. Instead of marrying Theseus, Ariadne is discovered on Naxos by the god, Dionysus, who she ends up marrying. In some versions of this myth, Dionysus appears to Theseus ordering him to abandon Ariadne, because he intends to wed her.

Theseus overjoyed to be almost home with his new wife, Phaedra; he absent mindedly forgets to change the color of his sails from black to white. His father, King Aegeus, seeing the black sails from afar and is overcome with grief and kill himself by jumping off a cliff into the sea. It is this act which secures Theseus' place as the new Athenian king and explains the origin name of the Aegean Sea.

Art & Portrayal

The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur is seen in a wide array of pottery from antiquity. Most depictions show Theseus in battle with Minotaur, who usually in a submissive if not defeat role. It was a popular subject matter for art. The myth itself embodies the basic struggle between the natural and unnatural or the civilized versus the uncivilized, which is a common theme in many Greek artistic representations. There are also several coins from Crete which depict the Labyrinth construction on the backside; this suggests that there may be some fact to this myth of the Labyrinth and Minotaur.

Sources:

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 8 - 11
Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 213
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 27. 10 :
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 61. 4
Hyginus, Fabulae 40 - 43
Virgil Aeneid
Ovid, Heroides

Lycurgus Cup: Ancient Roman Nanotechnology Aiding the Worlds of Tomorrow

 

 

Lycurgus Cup 4th Century CE
Images Courtesy of the British Museum

The Lycurgus Cup is a Roman glass cage cup, or diatretum, made of dichroic glass. This means that the properties of the glass allow it to change color depending from which angle light is shown through. If lit from behind the glass turns red and green if lit from the front.  The cup depicts the ancient Greek myth of the Thracian King Lycurgus. Lycurgus was fated a horrible death by Dionysus who cursed him for banning his religion and imprisoning his followers. There are several variation of this myth, but the reference seen on the cup ( Lycurgus trapped in wine vines) is not common variation. However, there is a satyr and a figure believed to be Dionysus (due to panther [Dionysus' patron animal] and the thyrsus [a staff with a pine cone tip carried by his followers]) who are expressing angry gestures.

The Lycurgus Cup is a rare item from history, whose use is still unknown and highly speculated. It has been thought to have been used in the rites of Bacchus (Dionysus Roman counterpart). However, this can not be proved. Coincidentally, the Historia Augusta records the gift of two dichroic cups from Emperor Hadrian to his brother-in-law Servianus via a letter. Perhaps, this may have been one of them.

The British Museum acquired the cup in 1950's, but it wasn't until the 1990's that they understood its properties. Researchers analyzed broken fragments of the cup until they discovered that the Romans were nanotechnology pioneers. The glass effect of the Lycurgus Cups was achieved by making the glass with minutely ground gold and silver dust. The size of these particles of silver and gold are only about 50 nanometers across (less than one-thousandth the size of a grain of table salt) and required a transmission electron microscope to be seen. Thus, it is highly impossible that Roman artists made these minute silver-gold alloy dust particles for this size of cup; therefore, these particles must have been added in large quantities to even large amounts of glass-melts. Thus, there may have been other dichroic glass items made from the same glass-melt as the Lycurgus Cup.

The color changing ability of the glass is due the size of metal flecks and how their electrons vibrate that alters the color. Gang Logan Liu, an engineer at the University of Illinois, conjectured that when various liquids filled the cup it would change the vibration of the electron and thus the color. Thus, he argued that the Lycurgus Cup's phenomenon was very similar to a home pregnancy test, which uses a nano-based technology to turn a white line pink at the presence of HCG in urine. So, researchers began to formulate an experiment to test this hypothesis.

Due to the fact that the Lycurgus Cup is a prized and unique artifact, researcher were unable to fill the cup itself. However, they created billions of wells (about the size of postage stamp) and sprayed them with a gold and silver nanoparticles. Thus, they created essential tiny version of the Lycurgus Cup. Then, they continued with experiment by filling these wells with different types of liquids. The result was as predicted and the colors ranged from light green for water to red for oil. This "well" prototype was 100 times more sensitive to the differing salt levels of tested liquids than current sensor used for similar testing.

Liu was hopefully to see if the Roman's nanotechnology of gold-silver alloy particles could have current science applications. This experiment proved that one day this technology may make its way to handheld devices for detecting pathogens in salvia or urine.

 

 

 

The Lovers' Coin: Antony and Cleopatra

The Lovers' Coin: A Rare Discovery of a Mark Antony and Cleopatra Bronze Coin

Antony and Cleopatra by Lawerence Alma- Tadema; Courtesy of WikiCommons

The story of Marc Antony and Cleopatra is a love story of seduction, exotic locations, love-triangles, family, politics, war, and suicide. More importantly, their love affair was connected to the rise and fall of the Roman and Egyptian empire. It is easy to see how their love affair is intriguing tale for centuries worth of audiences from Plutarch's portrayal to Elizabeth Taylor's role to HBO's Rome Series. While there are countless of images produce of their romantic and tragic life; there something extraordinary in contemporary pieces that show both couples.

A recent archaeological discover in Tel Bethsaida (Northern coast of the Sea of Galilee) yielded a coin with the images of these notorious lovers. 

The Cleopatra and Antony side of the coin. Hanan Shafir. Courtesy of the Bethsaida Excavations Project

 

This coin found in Tel Bethsaida was actually minted in the port of Akko (known today as Acre). The coin is made of bronze, is approximately the size of a quarter (21-23 millimeters in diameter). It was minted in the last half of 35BCE and/or the first half of 34BCE. [1]

  

An side image of the Cleopatra side with a parallel image of the Greek letters outlined.

Cleopatra's side of the coin, it is somewhat unclear in the photo above, but one can see the Greek word: ΠΤΟΛΕΜΙδΣ .[2] This is the genitive form of the noun Ptolemais which means: "of the people of Ptolemais.[3]" Ptolemais is the name for ancient Akko, which was founded by Ptomlemy II Philadelphus in the 3rd century BCE.

"The cities of the ancient Middle East had a habit of minting coins bearing the portraits of whoever was in power," says Dr. Ariel, head of Israel Antiquities Authority Coin Department.[4] In 35 BCE, Antony's recent victory over the Parthians(Northeast Iran and Armenia), and his bestowing Armenia to Cleopatra's sons and Cyprus to her daughter may indicate why the ancient Middle East considered him powerful.[5]

Dating the coin was an interesting journey. Dr. Arav of the Bethsaida Excavations Project said the dating system was difficult to find. He continued to explain to me through our email conversations: On the Cleopatra side of the coin, there is a small I (iota) and E (epsilon). The Greek alphabet goes as follows : A=1, B=2, Γ=3, Δ=4, and so on. Thus, I and E in their numbering system are 10 and 5 respectively. Therefore, the I and E means 15.

However, what does the 15 mean? Dr. Arav explained that book research was essential in the following discovery: The people of Ptolemais valued greatly the event of Julius Caesar visiting the area to rid their waters of pirates. This event happened in 49BCE, the people of Ptolemais therefore used their dating system in reference to 49BCE. Thus, 49BCE being the starting date, 15 years later would be 35-34 BCE.

Dr. Ariel said, "Coins with the portraits of Antony and Cleopatra are extremely rare. Only six have been found anywhere in the world.[6]" However according to the ancient numismatic reference site Wildwinds.com, there have been more than six discoveries of Antony and Cleopatra coins.[7] Though, it would stand that only six of the eight coins are in good condition. This coin would make the seventh. However, it has to be asked if the ancient Middle East considered Antony and Cleopatra powerful in 35 BCE (and perhaps other years as well); why are there not more of these "lovers' coin?"

The Battle of Actium 2, September 31BC by Lorenzo A. Castro

Courtesy of Wikicommons

However, it is not difficult to hypothesize that Augustus Caesar may have had them collected and destroyed after his victory at Actium. Augustus after all did destroy Antony's portraits after his death, but for some reason allowed Cleopatra's statues to remain in Caesar's Temple to Venus Genetrix.[8] Perhaps, Augustus admired Cleopatra that as a foreigner her ambition, cunning, and wit were understandable However, his unforgiving attitude towards Antony may have had to do with his sister Octavia. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was at the expense of Augustus's sister and Antony's wife Octavia and their children. Cleopatra as a foreigner was understood to be less than a respectable being, but as a Roman male citizen Antony's actions were inexcusable.



Silver denarius of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony , 30's BCE. Courtesy of the British Museum

It is these rare coins which provide a look into Antony's and Cleopatra's policy of their portrayal, features, and idealized form. It is uncertain whether they wish to emulate a certain presence, as is suggested by the British Museum," Antony was said to remind people of the Greek hero Herakles in paintings and sculptures, with '... a very good and noble appearance; his beard was not unsightly, his forehead broad, and his nose aquiline' (Plutarch, Life of Antony, 4). However, here his portrait seems to have picked up Ptolemaic features, specifically the strong projecting chin of Ptolemy I, the founder of Cleopatra's dynasty, and the hooked noses of Cleopatra and her father Ptolemy XII.[9]"

Thus, this infamous couple continues to engage, fill, and plague our minds. Though, they are long dead and their story known by most; they continue to be the topic of much discussion, debate, and obsession.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Main Sources & Contributors:

Private Correspondence with Dr. Arav

The ancient coin of Cleopatra: There could have been pyramids in Paris

By Miriam Feinberg Vamosh | Aug. 4, 2013 |http://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-1.539712

 1. Israel Antiquities Authority Coin Department

2. The Bethsaida Excavations Project

Secondary Sources & Contributors:

British Museum: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/egypt/cleopatra_history_to_myth/denarius_of_cleopatra__antony.aspx

 

Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon,Oxford University Press, 1996

 

The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus/edited by Karl Galinsky.Cambridge University Press, 2005

 Plutarch, Life of Antony, Cambridge University Press, 1988.

---

[1] Vamosh, "The ancient coin of Cleopatra: There could have been pyramids in Paris" |http://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-1.539712

 

[2] My own translation and identification of text in red.

[3] Liddell & Scott, Greek- English Lexicon, Oxford University Press, 1996

[4] Vamosh

[5] Plutarch Life of Antony, Cambridge University Press, 1988. Chapter 54

[6] Vamosh

[7] http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sear5/s1515.html

[8] The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus/edited by Karl Galinsky.Cambridge University Press, 2005

 

[9] British Museum: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/egypt/cleopatra_history_to_myth/denarius_of_cleopatra__antony.aspx

 

Ishtar Gates: The Forgotten Wonder of the Ancient World

The following is a definition  submitted to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, which is a great free resources for students of any age.



Old Babylonian period Queen of Night relief,
 often considered to represent an aspect of Ishtar.

 

  The Ishtar Gate was constructed by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II circa 575 BCE. It was the eighth gate of the city of Babylon (in present day Iran) and was the main entrance into the city. The Ishtar Gate was part of Nebuchadnezzar's plan to beautify his empire's capital. During the first half of the sixth century BCE, he restored the temple of Marduk, built the renowned wonder: the Hanging Gardens as part of this plan. The magnificence of the Ishtar Gate was so well known that it made the list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. However, it was replaced by the Lighthouse of Alexandria, but some authors (Antipater of Sidon and Calliamchus of Cyrene) still wrote that the "Gates of Ishtar" and "Walls of Babylon" should still be considered one of the wonders. Officially though, it never made on the list.

The Ishtar Gate in Berlin. The Front of the Gate with Bulls and Dragons

The Ishtar Gate and Deities

The Ishtar Gate is named so, because it was dedicated to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar. Although the gate is dedicated to Ishtar, Nebuchadnezzar pays homage to other Babylonian deities through animal representation. The animals represented on the gate are young bulls (aurochs), lions, and dragons (sirrush). These animals are symbolic representations of certain deities: lions are often associated with Ishtar, bulls with Adad, and dragons with Marduk. Respectively, Ishtar was a goddess of fertility, love, war, and sex, Adad was a weather god, and Marduk was the chief or national god of Babylon.

The Ishtar Gate. The Front of the Gate with Bulls and Dragons

The Gate:

The front of the gate is adorned with glazed bricks with alternating rows of dragons and bulls. The beasts are furnished in yellow and brown tiles, while the bricks surrounding them are blue. The blue enameled tiles are thought to be of lapis lazuli, but there is some debate to this conjecture. The gates measured more than 38 feet high with a vast antechamber on the southern side.

Processional Way( much smaller than the original size) lined with lions and flowers.

Processional Way:

Through the gatehouse is Processional Way, which is a brick-paved corridor over half a mile long with walls over 50 feet tall on each side. The walls are adorned with over 120 sculptural lions, flowers, and enameled yellow tiles. The Processional Way was used for the New Year's celebration, through which statues of the deities would parade down. The Processional Way is a path paved with red and yellow stones (a rows of red stone on the outer layers and a yellow row in between). Each one of these stone has an inscription underneath: a small prayed from King Nebuchadnezzar to the chief god Marduk. It was this procession way that led to the temple of Marduk.

 

Excavation:

The Ishtar gate was excavated between 1902 to 1914 during which 45 feet of the original foundation of the gate was discovered. The material excavated by Robert Koldewey was used in a reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way. In 1930, the reconstruction was finished at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, Germany.


Reconstruction:

Due to size restrictions of the Pergamon museum, the Ishtar Gate is neither complete nor its original size. The gate was originally a double gate, but the Pergamon Museum only utlizes the smaller ,frontal part. The second gate is currently in storage. Originally the gate had a door and roof made of cedar and bronze, which was not built for the reconstruction. A smaller reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate was built in Iraq under Saddam Hussein as the entrance to a museum. However, this reconstruction was never finished due to war.

Ishtar Gate in Iraq

There are several museums in the world that received portions of the Ishtar Gate: Istanbul Archaeology Museum the Detroit Institute of At, Royal Ontario Museum, the Lourve, Munich's State Museum of Egyptian Art, New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oriental Institute of Chicago, and many more.

Dedication Plaque:

On the Ishtar Gate, there is a dedication plaque written from Nebuchadnezzar's point of view that explains the gate's purpose and describes it in some detail.

Cuneiform writing of the dedication plaque on the Gate.

Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, the faithful prince appointed by the will of Marduk, the highest of princely princes, beloved of Nabu, of prudent counsel, who has learned to embrace wisdom, who fathomed their divine being and reveres their majesty, the untiring governor, who always takes to heart the care of the cult of Esagila and Ezida and is constantly concerned with the well-being of Babylon and Borsippa, the wise, the humble, the caretaker of Esagila and Ezida, the firstborn son of Nabopolassar, the King of Babylon.

Dedication Plaque on the Gate

Both gate entrances of Imgur-Ellil and Nemetti-Ellil following the filling of the street from Babylon had become increasingly lower.

Therefore, I pulled down these gates and laid their foundations at the water table with asphalt and bricks and had them made of bricks with blue stone on which wonderful bulls and dragons were depicted.

I covered their roofs by laying majestic cedars length-wise over them. I hung doors of cedar adorned with bronze at all the gate openings.

I placed wild bulls and ferocious dragons in the gateways and thus adorned them with luxurious splendor so that people might gaze on them in wonder

I let the temple of Esiskursiskur (the highest festival house of Marduk, the Lord of the Gods a place of joy and celebration for the major and minor gods) be built firm like a mountain in the precinct of Babylon of asphalt and fired bricks.

The Top Ten Scandalous Women in Ancient Rome:Finale

The final compilation of the scandalous women from Ancient Rome. Enjoy!

NUMBER 3



 



Statue of Poppaea in the
Archaeological Museum of Olympia (Greece).
 Wikicommons.

Name: Poppaea Sabina (30AD–65AD) a.k.a Poppaea Sabina the Younger

Vices: Adultery, 2 Murders, Plotting, Ruthlessness, Manipulation,

Weakness: Ambition, Children, Power

Prime Examples: Poppaea was said to have married her second husband,Otho, in order to seduce the Emperor Nero. Ironically, she divorced her husband Otho in order to marry emperor Nero, but Otho would briefly be emperor after Nero’s death. She became the emperor Nero’s mistress and persuaded Nero to murder his mother(Agrippina the Younger), who forbade their marriage. Before marrying Nero, ancient authors also accredited her to inducing Nero to murdering his first wife: Octavia Claudia (emperor Claudius’ daughter). If you wish to learn more of her life visit here.

Ergo:  Poppaea places 3rd on her list for her manipulation of men to pursue power. Poppaea has been recorded by several authors to have been ruthless and ambitious. It has been said that she was murdered by Nero either by poison or by assault. Authors attest that, while pregnant, Nero kicked her in the stomach causing death. Other authors say, she simply died due to complications of a miscarriage.

 NUMBER 2

Sculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero. Wikicommons

Name: Julia Agrippina the Younger (7 November 15 or 6 November 16 – 19/23 March 59)

Vices: Incest, 3Murders, Plotting, Seduction

Weakness: Her Son, Her Daughter in Law (Number 3 on our list )

Prime Examples: Emperor Caligula (brother to Agrippina)was a crazy ruler who was said to have had incestuous relationships with his sisters. She murdered her second husband, Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus, in order to obtain his estates and inheritances. When her uncle emperor Claudius executed Messalina, Agrippina saw her opportunity to become empress. She became the mistress to one of Claudius’ advisers, Marcus Antonius Pallas, in order to persuade her way to royalty. Claudius and Agrippina married and removed everyone that stood in her or her son’s, Nero, path to power. She managed to have Claudius adopt Nero as his son and for Nero to marry Octavia Claudia ( Claudius’ daughter.) Lastly, she may have had in hand in the death of Britannicus (Claudius’ son and heir) who Nero succeeded for the throne. She employed the infamous poisoner Locusta to murder Claudius and give her son the Roman empire. More can be read on her here.

Ergo: Agrippina is places second on this list for willing to seduce for power even if it means committing incest (both with her brother Caligula and her uncle Claudius) , her employment of a poisoner to remove people from her way, and for the murder of her uncle/husband Claudius and his son Britannicus, her cousin. However, she was murdered by Number 3 on our list: Poppaea Sabina.

NUMBER 1

Portrait of Livia in Egyptian basalt,
 c. 31 BC, Louvre. Wikicommons

Name: Livia Drusilla (30 January 58 BC– 28 September AD 29)

Vices:  Poisoning, 4 Murders, Mass Manipulation, Viricide, Seduction

Weakness: Family, Tiberius, Power, BBC Portrayals, Pride

Prime Examples: Livia was the second and last wife of emperor Augustus. She met Augustus while still married to her first and pregnant with her second child. The meeting was said to be “love at first sight” which caused Augustus to divorce is wife. He was so in love with Livia that he divorced his wife on the very day she gave birth to only child: Julia the Elder (Number 7 on our list). He, also, forced Livia’s husband to divorce her and married Livia only three days after she gave birth to her second child: Drusus (Claudius’ father).This rush to be married was unconventional for the time and only further implicates her seducing nature. Furthermore according to the historians Dio, Suetonius, and Tacitus, Livia was responsible ether directly or indirectly for the deaths of several of her family members. She is reported to have murdered Marcellus(Augustus’ nephew and first adopted son), and Gaius and Lucius Caesar ( Augustus’ grandsons and adopted sons). It is believed she murdered these young men (respectively: 21, 16, 15 years old) so that her own son Tiberius (from a previous marriage) would be emperor.  Lastly, she is reported to have killed her husband, Augustus, of 51 years by poisoning his fig trees which he grew and ate from. You can read her more on her life here.

Ergo: Livia places first on our list for good reason. She murdered several people including her husband in order that her son may be emperor. She was perhaps a blueprint for Agrippina the Younger (#2). Disregarding all her faults, historian do attest that she was loyal, proper, and chaste.

All the women that have been placed upon this list have their faults, but it would be interesting to know their side of the tale. Many of the women that have been spotlighted in this list can be seen in BBC’s I, Claudius, which will be redone by HBO and BBC in the future.

How Mosquitoes Shaped Ancient Rome

How the Mosquito Shaped Ancient Rome

 

With July closing, I hope that everyone is having a wonderful summer and is making the most of the warm weather. Summer offers many great experiences from trips to the beach, the Fourth of July, fireworks, trips to the park, family reunions and so on.   For the Romans, the god of the seasons including summer was known as Vertumnus (which may be related to the verb vertere “to change”) and he is known as the lord of the season, harvest, and plant accretion.

Vertumnus and Pomona in the Louvre. Courtesy of Marie-Lan Nguyen.

However with the fun-spirited breezes of summer come the bugs. Now in this articles I wish to discuss one of the most determined and dangerous insect of the season: the mosquito. The word mosquito is actually a Spanish word, but the Latin is culex.

The Roman Mosquito! Beware!

Mosquitoes have had a long history with the human race. They have adapted with us in order to ensure their survival and this adaptation has bred many types of diseases, but none deadlier than malaria. Malaria is actually an Italian word meaning “bad air.” However, Italian as a romance language finds it roots within Latin as can be seen with malaria: malus which is an adjective meaning “bad” and aria coming from aer meaning “air.” Sadly, malaria continues today to be a disease that plagues many people, but efforts continue to be made to eradicate it.
Malaria has also been called the Roman Fever. Although the disease was carried by mosquitoes, not all ancient Romans understood the concept of parasites and thus thought the “bad air” brought the disease. They observed that people who lived closer to marshes or swamps were more likely to become ill and die. Due to this, there was even a goddess to prayer and sacrifice to for malaria: Dea Febris. She is believed to be related to, the Roman god of purification, Februus from whom we receive our second month’s name: February.

Image of the Roman God Februus. Courtesy of SuperCargo.

Since, the Romans were able to discern that “bad air” from the polluted waters of Rome were leading to the illness and death; it prompted change. There was a need for clean water that would promote the health of the people, as Varro said in De Re Rustica Book I, XII.II:
Advertendum etiam, siqua erunt loca palustria, et propter easdem causas, et quod crescunt animalia quaedam minuta, quae non possunt oculi consequi, et per aera intus in corpus per os ac nares perveniunt atque efficiunt difficilis morbos.
For attentiveness must be taken, if in anyway, in swampy places, and for the same reasons, and because there are bred certain small creatures, these things which the eyes cannot follow, and they travel through the air into the body through the mouth and nose and they produce perilous ailments.*
Could this description of “minute creature” be in reference to mosquitoes? Or simply to bad air particles?
Thus avoidance of dirty stagnant water became an essential along with having access to clean drinking water. One can see from this need where the concept of Aqueduct must have originated. The word aqueduct is actually a latin word!  Latin aquaeductus, aquae is the genitive of aqua “of water” and ductus means a leading. So literally, an aqueduct is a “leading of water.”

Pont du Gard, Roman Empire. Courtesy of Emanuele.

Roman lifestyles changed due to this disease drastically, swamps were drained (even by Julius Caesar), summer home were built in mountains to avoid the marshes, and malaria continued to run rampage in Rome that even four popes died of it hundreds of years later. For an in-depth analysis of how Rome took precautions please read Sura’s Article: The Cloaca Maxima. The Cloaca Maxima was one of the earliest sewer systems which drained swamp water, stagnant water, and other unwanted liquids into the Tiber River.

Map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, the Cloaca Maxima in red. Courtesy of Wikimedia.

So, who do you think had it worse when it came to mosquitoes? Some may argue that we can never know the true potency of the mosquito in modern times due to all the medical, commercial, and domestic advances. However, it can not be ignored that this ancient civilization in which most of Western civilization is based upon was greatly impacted by these tiny winged pests. But, was this a positive or negative impact? Some have argued that it was the mosquito that brought the Roman Civilization to its knees and even destroyed it.
The mosquito is a determined little bug who has adapted along side with humans; it has been jestingly called the modern day vampire! So with the summer, come the mosquitoes which bring the agonizing bug bites, itching, bumps, and soreness, this is of course not mentioning the dangers of West Nile Virus.

World War II era pamphlet. Courtesy of Nation Archives and Records Administration, College Park.

According to the Huff Post, 2013 has been projected to have a huge boom in the mosquito population due to the hot weather and unusual wet summer. While, West Nile is rare and the death toll from it even rarer; one must be careful to guard against the unwanted blood-suckers! Here is a page on awesome tips to have a mosquito-free summer! So be safe, prepared, and have a wonderful summer!

Centaurs: What a Horse of a Man!

Centaurs are mythological beings who are half horse and half man. They are liminal beings who are in between the world of man and beast. Centaurs like satyrs have been viewed as beings who are excessive or animalistic. Satyrs are creatures who are half man and half goat or donkey. They are creatures who are known for their excessive sexuality, lewd behavior, and sexual humor. However, centaurs are a difficult creature to categorize.

Centaurs have been often viewed as the negative primal force, but there is room for this argument. There are two types of Centaurs: The primal and the refined.


They are often featured in art and architecture portraying the mythological story of Centaurs versus Lapiths at the wedding of Pirithous.

Battle of Centaurs and Lapiths, by Piero di Cosimo

The Centaurs were invited to the wedding celebration of Pirithous. The Centaurs unused to drinking wine and their primal nature came forth. The Centauromachy broke out when Eurytion (Εὐρυτίων meaning "widely honored") attempted to carry off the bride. The battle continued until Thesues broke it up. The Lapiths cut off Eurytion's ears, nose, and threw him out. In the battle, the Centaurs were expelled from Thessaly to the northwest.


Pirithous, Hippodamia & the Centaur Eurytion,
Apulian red-figure krater C4th B.C., British Museum



It is interesting that a centaur of such a reputable name Eurytion would be mutilated in such a way by the human race: the Lapiths. It is suggestive that once a primal natural force (centaurs in this case) becomes violent mankind must correct it. Mankind must be above nature or be able to subdue it; especially when the primal force is symbolic of mankind's animalistic nature. Centaurs versus Lapiths is the age old allegory of barbarism versus civilization. However, there are exceptions to centaurs being the barbaric force of the human psyche, such as Chiron.

Amphora suggested to be Achilles riding Chiron.
British Museum ref 1956,1220.1

Chiron is an unique centaur whose lineage is not the same as other centaurs. He is the son of Cronus and the nymph Philyra. Cronus assumed the shape of a horse to impregnated the nymph. While other centaurs are from the union of Ixion and Nephele. Also, Chiron is unique in his appearance, as he can be seen as to having human legs on his front half and horse on the other half.

A lekythos depicting Chiron and Achilles

Chiron's fame comes from being the teacher, tutor, healer, and astrologer. He is renowned for having taught: Asclepius, Aristaeus, Ajax, Aeneas, Actaeon, Caeneus, Theseus, Achilles, Jason, Peleus, Telamon, Perseus- and in some renditions Herakles, Oileus, Phoenix.

Chiron in the Percy Jackson Series

There is a clear different between these two types of "centaurs" However, Chiron is rarely defined as a centaur due to his appearance and noble character. But, Chiron was honored at his death to be placed into the heavens as a constellation known as Centaurus.

Most people know this constellation as Sagittarius, which is ironic of course because Chiron died of an arrow wound. Thus, would it appear that centaurs live in media (books, films, tv series) and their representation is not lost to us. They are being unbound to nature, but not quite befitting of civilization. They are the wild man- the man who is in touch themselves and with the nature that surrounds them.



Heroes and Role Models reveal Society's Highest Ideals?

Claim: The best way to understand the character of a society is to examine the character of the men and women that the society chooses as its heroes or its role models.

Reason: Heroes and role models reveal a society's highest ideals.

Write a response in which you discuss the extent to which you agree or disagree with the claim and the reason on which that claim is based.

 

 

      In order to understand a society, there is an immeasurable amount of emphasis placed upon the rich, famous and influential. However, discerning a society's role models and heroes is easier said than done. There are no lists of who are the heroes and role model's of modern society, because it is all subjective. The principles of beliefs, religion, politics, personal morals, and axioms effect who and what is consider the "highest ideals" of a society.

   A society can not be characterized simple by a sample of a particular group. One can not attest that the United States' character as a society is based upon firefighters, policemen, or even politicians. Everyone has different role models depending on their personal life stories, challenges, and social status.

   A person who has had to overcome real personal struggles may say their heroes are people who are philanthropist; while a rich teenage girl may say Snookie from Jersey Shore is her role model and hero. Thus, the idea of "heroes" and "role models" is relative to the person that is being asked.

    It could be argued that the best way to understand the character of a society to examine their laws and prevalent literature. These documentations will be the materials that will last the tests of time. The liberties and literature of a society will be more concrete evidence to a society's ideals.

    The notion of literature and laws prevailing to show a society's ideal is clear with the Roman Empire and Ancient Greeks. As students of the past, we understand their culture, ideals and the identity of the culture through their laws, literature, philosophy, religion, and more.

   The reason and claim made are relative to their audience and can be subjective. The true insight of a society's highest ideals are the arts, culture, and laws that will outlast people. However, people do have their mark on the character of a society, but this is usually to highlight the negative ideals not to emulate.

 

What are you thoughts?

The Top Ten Scandalous Women of Ancient Rome: Part II

The list of infamous, scandalous and plotting women continues to countdown... You can also subscribe to Transparent Language Company's Latin Blog.

 

NUMBER 7

 

Julia the Elder by Pavel Svedomsky.
 Wikicommons.

Name: Julia the Elder  (39 BC – AD 14)

Vices: Promiscuity, Excessive Affairs, Treason,

Weakness:  Food, Men, Speaking Her Mind, Drinking Parties, Small Islands

Prime Examples:  Julia the Elder was the daughter of Emperor Augustus. According to Dio and Seneca, although married to Tiberius (who would be emperor after Augustus) she reveled in drinking parties, many love affairs, and even prostitution. This promiscuity was especially scandalous due to her father's Leges Juliae (Julian Laws) that promoted family units, children, and marital loyalty.  The fact that his own daughter was breaking these laws was unforgiveable. Pliny states she had affairs and plotted in public; "adulterium filiae et consilia parricidae" "adultery of the daughter and the plan of patricide." You can read more on her life here.

Ergo  Julia earns number 7 for her crimes against and humiliation of her husband, father, and empire. All her deeds must have been true, because she was exiled for them, banished from her family, and eventually starved to death. However, her loveless marriages may have caused this outcry for love and attention. It is difficult not to pity the woman, even though scandalous.

 NUMBER 6

 

Messalina holding her son Britannicus, Louvre.
Wikicommons

Name: Valeria Messalina (c. 17/20 – 48) a.k.a Messalina
Vices: Lust, Promiscuity, Treason, Bigamy, Seduction, Persuasiveness
Weakness: Selfishness, Pride, Competitiveness, Handsome Face,
Prime Examples: Messalina was the wife of Emperor Claudius. Although she was the most powerful woman in Rome, she sought to overthrow her husband and rule with her lover. Messalina is infamously known for her clandestine affairs, but most notable for her all-night sex competition against a prostitute. According to Pliny, Messalina won the 24 hour competition with 25 partners. She also humiliated Claudius by marrying her last lover: the intelligent and handsome Gaius Silius. Gaius and Messalina had planned to overthrow Claudius and rule together, but their plan was exposed. You can read more on her life here.
Ergo: Messalina earns number 6 due to her similar nature to Julia the Elder, but the fact that she was plotting against her husband. As punishment her name was removed from all monuments, honors and  was sentenced to death. She betrayed not only her husband, her children, but also Roman women.

 NUMBER 5
 

Woman on the Great Cameo of France who may be Livilla.
Wikicommons

Name: Claudia Livia Julia  (c. 13 BC – 31 AD) a.k.a: Livilla
Vices: Murder, Plotting Treason, Affairs, Rudeness
Weakness: Love for Sejanus, Power, Children, Locked Doors
Prime Examples:   Livilla was the daughter of Antonia and sister to Claudius. She was reported to be a beautiful, but sharp woman. She once laughed hysterically at the prophecy of Claudius being destined to be emperor. She took on one lover, a praetorian prefect: Sejanus. With her lover Sejanus, they murdered and poisoned her husband Drusus. Once Drusus was gone, she and Sejanus attempted to marry, but Emperor Tiberius would not comply. Tiberius eventually suggested that Sejanus could marry Livilla's daughter Livia Julia. Eventually, Sejanus' ex-wife told the emperor of  Livilla's and Sejanus' plan to overthrow Tiberius and rule Rome. You can read more on her life here.Ergo: Livilla places number 5 on our list due to her murder of her husband for her lover. She places fifth for murder, treason, and want of power. Livilla, although selfish and vain, was upset at the pretense of Sejanus marrying her daughter even as a formality. Livilla's death was a treacherous as her life; she was held captive in a room while her mother stood outside it and allowed her to starve to death.

NUMBER 4

 

Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. Painting by Jean-Léon Gerome.
 Wikicommons.

Name: Cleopatra VII Philopator (69BC-30BC) a.k.a Cleopatra
Vices: Murder, Wit, Seducing Married Men
Weakness: Desire to Rule Egypt, Love for Marc Antony & her Children, Pride, Sea Battles
Prime Examples: Cleopatra was exiled from her reign, power and home in 48 BCE. She supposedly met Caesar (already married) , seduced him and bore his son. Caesar renstated her as queen of Egypt and she murdered her brother (in the siege of Alexandria) and order her sister's death as well. When Caesar died unexpectedly, Cleopatra did not give up on her power or prospects for her children. She seduced, married, and started a family with Marc Antony (who was already married). After the defeat at Actium, Antony committed suicide at the news of Cleopatra's death. Cleopatra later would attempt to seduce Augustus in hopes of securing another powerful married Roman man.  You can read more on her life here.
Ergo: Cleopatra places number 4 due to her willingness to kill her siblings for power, seduce married men, excessive shows of luxury to intimidate, and her suicide to preserve her pride. She was an infamous woman of her time and is still to this day synonymous with "seducing for power."