The Lupercalia

Lupercalia is an ancient fertility Roman festival that was held February 13-15. The festival was held to both promote fertility along with purging the city of evil and illness. Although it was an ancient festival; it was celebrated for many centuries.

The Lupercalian Festival in Rome (ca. 1578–1610), drawing by the circle of Adam Elsheimer, showing the Luperci dressed as dogs and goats, with Cupid and personifications of fertility

 

In Roman mythology, Lupercus is a god sometimes identified Faunus (equivalent to Greek god: Pan). Lupercus is the god of shepherds. Faunus' or Lupercus' festival was held on the founding of the temple (which is Febraury 15th). The Lupercalia was held in his (Lupercus) honor or in honor of the lupus or she-wolf.



Capitoline Wolf. Traditional scholarship says the wolf-figure is Etruscan, 5th century BC, with figures of Romulus and Remus added in the 15th century AD by Antonio Pollaiuolo.

 

RITES OF LUPERCALIA
The rites were directed by the Luperci, the "brothers of the wolf (lupus)", a corporation of sacerdotes (priests) of Faunus or Lupercus, dressed only in a goatskin. The festival began with a sacrifice by the Luperci  of two male goats and a dog. Next two young patrician Luperci were led to the altar, to be anointed on their foreheads with the sacrificial blood, which was wiped off the bloody knife with wool soaked in milk, after which they were expected to be happy and jolly.
The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs from the skins of the animals, which were called februa, dressed themselves in the skins of the sacrificed goats, in imitation of Lupercus, and ran round the walls of the old Palatine city, the line of which was marked with stones, with the thongs in their hands in two bands, striking the people who crowded near. Girls and young women would line up on their route to receive lashes from these whips. This was supposed to ensure fertility, prevent sterility in women and ease the pains of childbirth.

The Lupercalia according to Plutarch Life of Caesar:

"Lupercalia, of which many write that it was anciently celebrated by shepherds, and has also some connection with the Arcadian Lycaea. At this time many of the noble youths and of the magistrates run up and down through the city naked, for sport and laughter striking those they meet with shaggy thongs. And many women of rank also purposely get in their way, and like children at school present their hands to be struck, believing that the pregnant will thus be helped in delivery, and the barren to pregnancy."

LUPERCALIA TO VALENTINE'S DAY

A drawing depicts the death of St. Valentine — one of them, anyway. The Romans executed two men by that name on Feb. 14 of different years in the 3rd century A.D.

 

The evolution of Valentine's Day is a debated and long discussion. The idea that two martyred priest, both by the name Valentine, who later became saints and to whose honor a holiday of love was established is an interesting and complex story. You can read the dark history of Valentines Day: here. Also, the Lupercalia is still discussed today by Stephen Colbert: here.

How Mosquitoes Shaped Ancient Rome

How the Mosquito Shaped Ancient Rome

 

With July closing, I hope that everyone is having a wonderful summer and is making the most of the warm weather. Summer offers many great experiences from trips to the beach, the Fourth of July, fireworks, trips to the park, family reunions and so on.   For the Romans, the god of the seasons including summer was known as Vertumnus (which may be related to the verb vertere “to change”) and he is known as the lord of the season, harvest, and plant accretion.

Vertumnus and Pomona in the Louvre. Courtesy of Marie-Lan Nguyen.

However with the fun-spirited breezes of summer come the bugs. Now in this articles I wish to discuss one of the most determined and dangerous insect of the season: the mosquito. The word mosquito is actually a Spanish word, but the Latin is culex.

The Roman Mosquito! Beware!

Mosquitoes have had a long history with the human race. They have adapted with us in order to ensure their survival and this adaptation has bred many types of diseases, but none deadlier than malaria. Malaria is actually an Italian word meaning “bad air.” However, Italian as a romance language finds it roots within Latin as can be seen with malaria: malus which is an adjective meaning “bad” and aria coming from aer meaning “air.” Sadly, malaria continues today to be a disease that plagues many people, but efforts continue to be made to eradicate it.
Malaria has also been called the Roman Fever. Although the disease was carried by mosquitoes, not all ancient Romans understood the concept of parasites and thus thought the “bad air” brought the disease. They observed that people who lived closer to marshes or swamps were more likely to become ill and die. Due to this, there was even a goddess to prayer and sacrifice to for malaria: Dea Febris. She is believed to be related to, the Roman god of purification, Februus from whom we receive our second month’s name: February.

Image of the Roman God Februus. Courtesy of SuperCargo.

Since, the Romans were able to discern that “bad air” from the polluted waters of Rome were leading to the illness and death; it prompted change. There was a need for clean water that would promote the health of the people, as Varro said in De Re Rustica Book I, XII.II:
Advertendum etiam, siqua erunt loca palustria, et propter easdem causas, et quod crescunt animalia quaedam minuta, quae non possunt oculi consequi, et per aera intus in corpus per os ac nares perveniunt atque efficiunt difficilis morbos.
For attentiveness must be taken, if in anyway, in swampy places, and for the same reasons, and because there are bred certain small creatures, these things which the eyes cannot follow, and they travel through the air into the body through the mouth and nose and they produce perilous ailments.*
Could this description of “minute creature” be in reference to mosquitoes? Or simply to bad air particles?
Thus avoidance of dirty stagnant water became an essential along with having access to clean drinking water. One can see from this need where the concept of Aqueduct must have originated. The word aqueduct is actually a latin word!  Latin aquaeductus, aquae is the genitive of aqua “of water” and ductus means a leading. So literally, an aqueduct is a “leading of water.”

Pont du Gard, Roman Empire. Courtesy of Emanuele.

Roman lifestyles changed due to this disease drastically, swamps were drained (even by Julius Caesar), summer home were built in mountains to avoid the marshes, and malaria continued to run rampage in Rome that even four popes died of it hundreds of years later. For an in-depth analysis of how Rome took precautions please read Sura’s Article: The Cloaca Maxima. The Cloaca Maxima was one of the earliest sewer systems which drained swamp water, stagnant water, and other unwanted liquids into the Tiber River.

Map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, the Cloaca Maxima in red. Courtesy of Wikimedia.

So, who do you think had it worse when it came to mosquitoes? Some may argue that we can never know the true potency of the mosquito in modern times due to all the medical, commercial, and domestic advances. However, it can not be ignored that this ancient civilization in which most of Western civilization is based upon was greatly impacted by these tiny winged pests. But, was this a positive or negative impact? Some have argued that it was the mosquito that brought the Roman Civilization to its knees and even destroyed it.
The mosquito is a determined little bug who has adapted along side with humans; it has been jestingly called the modern day vampire! So with the summer, come the mosquitoes which bring the agonizing bug bites, itching, bumps, and soreness, this is of course not mentioning the dangers of West Nile Virus.

World War II era pamphlet. Courtesy of Nation Archives and Records Administration, College Park.

According to the Huff Post, 2013 has been projected to have a huge boom in the mosquito population due to the hot weather and unusual wet summer. While, West Nile is rare and the death toll from it even rarer; one must be careful to guard against the unwanted blood-suckers! Here is a page on awesome tips to have a mosquito-free summer! So be safe, prepared, and have a wonderful summer!

The Top Ten Scandalous Women of Ancient Rome: Part II

The list of infamous, scandalous and plotting women continues to countdown... You can also subscribe to Transparent Language Company's Latin Blog.

 

NUMBER 7

 

Julia the Elder by Pavel Svedomsky.
 Wikicommons.

Name: Julia the Elder  (39 BC – AD 14)

Vices: Promiscuity, Excessive Affairs, Treason,

Weakness:  Food, Men, Speaking Her Mind, Drinking Parties, Small Islands

Prime Examples:  Julia the Elder was the daughter of Emperor Augustus. According to Dio and Seneca, although married to Tiberius (who would be emperor after Augustus) she reveled in drinking parties, many love affairs, and even prostitution. This promiscuity was especially scandalous due to her father's Leges Juliae (Julian Laws) that promoted family units, children, and marital loyalty.  The fact that his own daughter was breaking these laws was unforgiveable. Pliny states she had affairs and plotted in public; "adulterium filiae et consilia parricidae" "adultery of the daughter and the plan of patricide." You can read more on her life here.

Ergo  Julia earns number 7 for her crimes against and humiliation of her husband, father, and empire. All her deeds must have been true, because she was exiled for them, banished from her family, and eventually starved to death. However, her loveless marriages may have caused this outcry for love and attention. It is difficult not to pity the woman, even though scandalous.

 NUMBER 6

 

Messalina holding her son Britannicus, Louvre.
Wikicommons

Name: Valeria Messalina (c. 17/20 – 48) a.k.a Messalina
Vices: Lust, Promiscuity, Treason, Bigamy, Seduction, Persuasiveness
Weakness: Selfishness, Pride, Competitiveness, Handsome Face,
Prime Examples: Messalina was the wife of Emperor Claudius. Although she was the most powerful woman in Rome, she sought to overthrow her husband and rule with her lover. Messalina is infamously known for her clandestine affairs, but most notable for her all-night sex competition against a prostitute. According to Pliny, Messalina won the 24 hour competition with 25 partners. She also humiliated Claudius by marrying her last lover: the intelligent and handsome Gaius Silius. Gaius and Messalina had planned to overthrow Claudius and rule together, but their plan was exposed. You can read more on her life here.
Ergo: Messalina earns number 6 due to her similar nature to Julia the Elder, but the fact that she was plotting against her husband. As punishment her name was removed from all monuments, honors and  was sentenced to death. She betrayed not only her husband, her children, but also Roman women.

 NUMBER 5
 

Woman on the Great Cameo of France who may be Livilla.
Wikicommons

Name: Claudia Livia Julia  (c. 13 BC – 31 AD) a.k.a: Livilla
Vices: Murder, Plotting Treason, Affairs, Rudeness
Weakness: Love for Sejanus, Power, Children, Locked Doors
Prime Examples:   Livilla was the daughter of Antonia and sister to Claudius. She was reported to be a beautiful, but sharp woman. She once laughed hysterically at the prophecy of Claudius being destined to be emperor. She took on one lover, a praetorian prefect: Sejanus. With her lover Sejanus, they murdered and poisoned her husband Drusus. Once Drusus was gone, she and Sejanus attempted to marry, but Emperor Tiberius would not comply. Tiberius eventually suggested that Sejanus could marry Livilla's daughter Livia Julia. Eventually, Sejanus' ex-wife told the emperor of  Livilla's and Sejanus' plan to overthrow Tiberius and rule Rome. You can read more on her life here.Ergo: Livilla places number 5 on our list due to her murder of her husband for her lover. She places fifth for murder, treason, and want of power. Livilla, although selfish and vain, was upset at the pretense of Sejanus marrying her daughter even as a formality. Livilla's death was a treacherous as her life; she was held captive in a room while her mother stood outside it and allowed her to starve to death.

NUMBER 4

 

Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. Painting by Jean-Léon Gerome.
 Wikicommons.

Name: Cleopatra VII Philopator (69BC-30BC) a.k.a Cleopatra
Vices: Murder, Wit, Seducing Married Men
Weakness: Desire to Rule Egypt, Love for Marc Antony & her Children, Pride, Sea Battles
Prime Examples: Cleopatra was exiled from her reign, power and home in 48 BCE. She supposedly met Caesar (already married) , seduced him and bore his son. Caesar renstated her as queen of Egypt and she murdered her brother (in the siege of Alexandria) and order her sister's death as well. When Caesar died unexpectedly, Cleopatra did not give up on her power or prospects for her children. She seduced, married, and started a family with Marc Antony (who was already married). After the defeat at Actium, Antony committed suicide at the news of Cleopatra's death. Cleopatra later would attempt to seduce Augustus in hopes of securing another powerful married Roman man.  You can read more on her life here.
Ergo: Cleopatra places number 4 due to her willingness to kill her siblings for power, seduce married men, excessive shows of luxury to intimidate, and her suicide to preserve her pride. She was an infamous woman of her time and is still to this day synonymous with "seducing for power."

Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar and the Genius of Leadership.

Date: Thursday, April 4, 2013
Time: 7:30 p.m.
Location: Getty Villa, Auditorium
Admission: Free; a ticket is required. Limit 4 per person. Call (310) 440-7300 or visit the website. Parking fee: $10

Hannibal

J.Caesar



Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar were the three greatest soldier-statesmen of the ancient world. Each achieved stunning successes but faced ultimate failure. Acclaimed scholar, historian, and author Barry Strauss of Cornell University tells the story of these three great captains and outlines their ups and downs in strategy, politics, and battle while measuring the differences between myth and reality.

 A noted scholar and an award-winning teacher, Barry Strauss is chair of the department of history at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York and is a leading expert on military history and on leadership. He is the author of numerous books, including his latest Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar and the Genius of Leadership (Simon and Schuster, 2012) as well as The Battle of Salamis (2004), The Trojan War: A New History (2006), and The Spartacus War (2009).

Barry Strauss has an amazing website: Barry Strauss Website

Learn More and Get Your Tickets At: Getty Villa Ticket Admission